DNA Extraction Lab Conclusion

In this lab, the question was asked how can DNA be separated from the cheek in order to study it. We found that DNA can be separated from the cheek by mixing saliva with salt, detergent, and pineapple juice and then layer the mixture with isopropanol alcohol. When both liquids were separately together in the test tube, DNA rose to where the liquids split and was in suspension. In the information that we collected, we learned that in order to separate DNA, we must homogenize the tissue with a polar liquid. To isolate the DNA,  salt helps precipitation by moving DNA molecules closer together and detergent preforms lysis on the cell membranes. Pineapple juice contains catabolic proteases, which are enzymes that break down histones that DNA molecules wrap around. Alcohol is added to the mixture with the broken down DNA inside, and since alcohol is non polar the DNA precipitated  into an insoluble solid in the middle of the test tube. This shows how different enzymes and solutions can work together to separate DNA from the cheek.
One error that could have happened is that we mixed alcohol with the gatorade mixture. If this happened, then the DNA would have no place in the middle to meet and the solution would be too mixed up. To prevent this, we could pour the alcohol very slowly at an angle with care. Another error that could have happened is that we didn't add pineapple juice. This would mean the enzyme in pineapple juice doesn't break down the DNA and it wouldn't be as visible. To prevent this, we could read the procedure with more care.
The purpose of this lab was to see what DNA looks like and how we can extract it using different solutions. In class, we learned about how the structure of DNA is a long double- helix that in thin like a string, and in the lab we saw that DNA is stringy like clumped yarn. From this lab I learned that by mixing two liquids, I can extract an insoluble solid and I can use precipitation in other situations where I need to separate elements.

Unit 4 Reflection

This unit was about how genes divide and are passed on to offspring. A big concept was how different sexual reproduction is from asexual. Sexual reproduction create genetic variation and can breed for adaptations to environmental changes. Meiosis is the process of making sex cells that are necessary for fertilization. In meiosis, a human diploid cell divides with 46 chromosomes divides into 4 haploid gametes each with 23 chromosomes. A gene on the chromosomes In anaphase II, chromosomes separate into two cells. Both of Mendel's laws, the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment, take place in anaphase II.

Chromosomes have many traits on each chromosome that is recombined during meiosis. Chromosomes not only determine traits by autosomes, they also determine the sex of an organism by sex chromosomes. There are autosomal disorders and sex-linked disorders. Sex-linked disorders differ in probability to gender.
One of my weaknesses is remembering the phases of mitosis and meiosis. Another one is solving for the probability of blood types. One of my strengths is doing punnet squares and another one is knowing the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual. A setback at the beginning of the unit was understanding the difference between meiosis and mitosis, but once we learned more about the gametes and Mendel's laws it became more clear.
I want to learn more about genes that have multiple factors or how adaptations form in DNA.

My results on the VARK Questionnaire were 11 for Visual, 8 for aural, 10 for writing, and 11 for
kinesthetic. I was not surprised about having the lowest aural because I know that I am not good at listening to problems or lectures and thinking without writing something down. I was surprised to have a good score on kinesthetic because I've never noticed that movement helps me learn. I am very aware of being a visual learner and I try to draw pictures not matter how bad and use colors. I should try to learn with kinesthetic styles by putting examples in my study guides and use diagrams.

Coin Sex Lab Relate+Review

         In this lab, we tested the probability of crosses with different genes and how they affected the phenotype. We labeled the sides of the coins and flipped them to imitate the probability of gene crosses during recombination and how the actual probability reflects on the outcome. The autosomal crosses tested traits found on non-sex chromosomes and were the same probability for each gender. X-linked inheritance differs by gender whether the disorder is dominant or recessive. In the lab we tested for color blindness, which is X-linked recessive. We predicted that there would be two colorblind children and we resulted in two color blind boys.  In the monohybrid cross, the sides of the coin acted as alleles and there was a 50/50 chance of landing on an allele if the gene was heterozygous and a 100% chance of having an allele if the gene was homozygous. It also shows the law of independent assortment because the probability of getting a gene is not dependent on the probability of the other coin since they are completely separate.The probability of flipping a coin is similar to how the genes separate during meiosis, they can go either way and it is equally likely.
         Our results in the dihybrid cross were similar to our expectations but they were not exact, proving that the ratio of 9:3:3:1 is not always correct in most cases. Our results were 6:4:4:2, where the order of greatest to least still followed very well in the phenotypes of the expected results. But the amount of completely recessive homozygous genotypes was one more than our guess, which was interesting since it is the most unlikely genotype. The idea of the ratio 9:3:3:1 is a good guide to what should be the most common genotype and the least common, but it is not the only ratio to be received from a dihybrid cross.
        The limitations of relying on Punnet squares lies in the unknown results that chance answers. Probability is a synopsis of what is the most common situation to come about. Predicting offspring can't rely on probability because many situations are uncommon in life. The way that genes segregate can not be predicted, but we can solve for the probability of what happens with both outcomes of segregation.
        My dad has green eyes and my mom has brown eyes. My brother got my dad's green eyes and I have always been jealous as to why I didn't have his eye color too. My eyes are light brown, which it almost a mix of green and brown but not quite. It was interesting to find out the scientific explanation of how the trait is recessive and how that affected me and my family.

Genetics Infographic

Unit 3 Reflection

In Unit 3, we learned about the building blocks of living organisms, cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus and are mostly bacteria. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus along with many other organelles and are animals, plants, and humans. Plant cells have a few different parts like the cell wall and a large central vacuole. The nucleus stores the instructions in forms of DNA and is surrounded by the rough endoplasmic reticulum that holds ribosomes. The membrane is semi-permeable which means it selects what goes in and comes out, causing diffusion and osmosis. Molecules like to move from high concentrations to low until concentration gradient is achieved and the solution is isotonic. Cells are small because it is easier for materials to diffuse in and out in a object that has more surface area than volume. Through photosynthesis, autotrophic cells make their own food in the chloroplasts by converting carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight into glucose and oxygen. Cellular respiration is the inverse of photosynthesis because it converts glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP in the mitochondria. Animals and humans only use cellular respiration while plants use both.
From the unit I learned about what are the most basic life functions that occur constantly and unnoticed. As an organism grows, the cells work hard in making energy and and carrying out everyday jobs. My strengths were more in the topics about what the organelles did and their main job in the cell. My weaknesses were the specifics of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. I want to learn more about how the organelles and different cells work together inside an organism, like what other processes are carried out and how they all overlap.

The Yolks on You

Egg Macromolecule Conclusion
The question was asked "Can macromolecules be identified in a egg cell?"

Egg membrane
Macromolecules like proteins can be found in the membrane. In our experiment, we found that the cell membrane tested the most positive out of all of the other parts of egg. It was rated a 8 out of 10 with the purplest color. We knew this because proteins are found in the membrane, cytoplasm and cytoskeleton of the cell. This supports our claim because the membrane has the most protein in the egg. This proved that proteins could be identified in the egg cell by using sodium hydroxide and copper sulfate.

Yolk
Macromolecules like lipids can be found in the yolk. In our experiment, we found that the yolk tested the best for lipids and turned the most orange out of the other parts of egg. It tested a 9 out of 10 on color. This supports our claim because lipids are found in all of the organelles in the egg and the yolk has the organelles.

White
Macromolecules like monosaccharides can be found in the egg white. In our experiment, we found that egg white tested as one of the two most positive for monosaccharides. It tested a 4 out of 10 but it was still more present compared to other egg parts. This supports our claim because monosaccharies are found in the cytoplasm of cells and egg whites are the cytoplasm.

One error could be the judgement of color in the tests by different students. This could affect the true amount of macromolecules in a certain part of the egg. To fix this error, we could have discussed the rated and had multiple eyes judge the color. Another error that could have happened could have been that students dropped too much of an indicator. This would affect the color of each macromolecule test because a tube could appear darker than it should be because it had more drops. To prevent this error, the dropper should be used very carefully and the drops should be all equally distributed.

The purpose of this lab was to find out which macromolecules are present in different parts of an egg. This relates to the parts of the cell we are studying in class and how their components help them function. Different macromolecules can make up various cell parts because they can be used for different functions. This experiment can help in future situations because it taught us how use indicators to test for things our senses can't read. There could be experiments that require the use of indicators and we would know what to look for.

Egg Diffusion Lab Analysis

In this lab, we were asked the question, "how and why does a cell's internal environment change, as it's external environment changes?" We used eggs that had dissolved membranes and soaked one in normal water and one in sugar water.
 In the distilled water, the egg increased in both mass and circumference. In sugar water, the egg decreased in both mass and circumference. The average mass was -47.25% and the average circumference was -22.94%. They decreased because of hypertonic passive diffusion which is when there is a greater concentration of solute outside of the cell and low concentration inside the cell. The solvent goes from high concentration to low concentration of solvent and diffused outside of the cell, shrinking it.
The cell's internal environment changes to maintain concentration gradient and equilibrium. The cell changes like how the egg in vinegar dissolved the cell and also grew in mass and circumference. The cell balances out the amount of solute and solvent both inside and outside of the cell.
This lab demonstrates homeostasis because the cell responds to the environment around itself and adjusts itself to stay in the same internal conditions as before. The egg diffuses solvents and solutes until everything is equal like before it was in that certain substance.
vegetables are sprinkled with water so that they don't shrink as they dry out. The water is diffuses into the cell and the vegetables grow in size a little bit. The salting to the plants makes the plants shrink because the salt adds to a greater solute concentration and makes it hypertonic. Water will leave the plant cells and the plant will wilt.
Based on the experiment, I would want to test if different types of cells shrink/grow at different rates with the same concentration of solutes and solvents because it would be interesting to see if different types of cells change  differently or not.